Traditional Vaccines vs. mRNA Breakthrough

Before the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccines were traditionally created using killed or weakened viruses or specific viral components. While these methods have been successful in preventing many diseases, they pose limitations when it comes to scalability and rapid production. Scientists and researchers have long been exploring alternative strategies that don’t rely on cell culture, but they faced numerous challenges along the way.

Karikó and Weissman’s Collaboration

During the 1980s, new methods for producing mRNA without cell culture were introduced, offering a potential avenue for mRNA’s use in vaccines. However, this promising development was hampered by obstacles such as mRNA instability and inflammatory reactions that hindered its progress towards clinical applications. It was at this critical juncture that Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman began their collaborative work, ultimately leading to groundbreaking discoveries.

Their research, published in 2005, revealed that introducing base modifications into mRNA could overcome the limitations previously encountered. These modifications were found to reduce inflammatory responses while simultaneously increasing protein production. This breakthrough finding revolutionized our understanding of mRNA and its interaction with the immune system.

Base Modifications: A Game-Changer for mRNA

Building upon their initial revelation, Karikó and Weissman went on to demonstrate that mRNA with base modifications significantly improved protein production compared to unmodified mRNA. This crucial advancement laid the foundation for the development of clinical applications for mRNA vaccines. Interest in mRNA technology surged, and it wasn’t long before two nucleoside base-modified mRNA vaccines, encoding the surface protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, were developed at an unprecedented pace during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Figure: The Nobel laureates found that altering mRNA with modified nucleoside bases (A, U, G, C) reduces inflammation and boosts protein production upon cell delivery.

mRNA Vaccines: A Rapid Response to COVID-19

The efficacy of these mRNA vaccines has been nothing short of remarkable, with reported protective effects of approximately 95%. These vaccines have not only saved millions of lives but have also allowed societies around the world to regain a sense of normalcy amid the global health crisis.

Beyond their immediate impact on the COVID-19 pandemic, the flexibility and speed of mRNA vaccine development have opened up exciting possibilities for combatting other infectious diseases. Moreover, the potential for delivering therapeutic proteins and treating certain types of cancer through mRNA-based approaches holds great promise.

Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman’s groundbreaking discoveries have played an instrumental role in the transformative development of mRNA vaccines during one of the most significant health crises in recent history. Their tireless efforts, persistence, and outstanding contributions have propelled the field of vaccines forward, forever changing the way we protect ourselves against infectious diseases.

As we acknowledge and celebrate their achievements, we can only anticipate the future breakthroughs and advancements that will surely arise from this powerful platform of mRNA technology.

Mohsin Rasheed

Co-Founder & Chief Editor of Everyman Science. I view science not just as a collection of facts, but as the ultimate guide for human survival. From medical breakthroughs to the logistics of space exploration, I am dedicated to documenting how scientific reasoning uplifts the human spirit and provides the blueprints to save our planet. I believe that by unleashing the power of nature through disciplined inquiry, we can secure a sustainable future for humanity.

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Understanding Nipah

This outbreak is the fourth to impact Kerala in the last five years, with the most recent occurring in 2021. Although these outbreaks typically affect a relatively small geographic area, they can be highly fatal. Scientists are apprehensive that further person-to-person transmission may make the virus more contagious. Nipah virus is known to have a fatality rate of 40% to 75%, depending on the strain. Rajib Ausraful Islam, a veterinary physician specializing in bat-borne pathogens at the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, states that every outbreak raises concerns as it provides an opportunity for the virus to mutate.

Symptoms of Nipah virus infection include fever, vomiting, respiratory issues, and brain inflammation. Although fruit bats are the primary carriers, it can also infect humans and domestic animals such as pigs. The virus spreads through contact with bodily fluids from infected animals or humans. Currently, there are no approved vaccines or treatments, but research is underway to develop potential candidates.

Historically, the first reported outbreak of Nipah virus occurred over two decades ago among pig farmers in Malaysia. It subsequently spread to Singapore through infected pigs, resulting in almost 300 cases and over 100 deaths. Malaysia has not experienced any further outbreaks, but since 2001, Bangladesh and India have seen periodic flare-ups. In Bangladesh, outbreaks occur almost every year and have been linked to the consumption of fermented date-palm sap contaminated with bat urine. Although it is unclear when and how the virus crossed over from bats to humans in the current Kerala outbreak, investigations are ongoing.

Nipah vs. COVID-19

Stephen Luby, an epidemiologist at Stanford University, explains that the strain of Nipah virus circulating in India and Bangladesh differs from the one that caused the Malaysian outbreak. While the Malaysian strain primarily spread from animals to humans, there was minimal transmission between people. Conversely, the strain responsible for the recent Kerala outbreak can transmit from person to person and is significantly more lethal. Danielle Anderson, a virologist at the Royal Melbourne Hospital, reassures that Nipah virus is less likely to spread globally than other animal-borne infections due to its lower person-to-person transmission rate. A study conducted in Bangladesh between 2001 and 2015 found that only about one-third of human infections were passed on to others. Anderson believes that Nipah virus will not have the same global impact as COVID-19.

The high fatality rate of Nipah virus restricts its ability to rapidly spread among populations. Christopher Broder, an expert in emerging infectious diseases, explains that the virus is not inclined to kill all who become infected as it is not in its best interest. The strain currently circulating in Kerala has not undergone significant changes since its emergence in Bangladesh over two decades ago. However, there is a possibility of future outbreaks involving a milder but more contagious strain if the virus mutates. It is also likely that undetected variants are already in circulation.

Preventing Nipah and other bat-borne virus outbreaks relies on improved management of wildlife living close to communities. Andrew Breed, a veterinary epidemiologist, suggests that stress in infected bats can lead to higher shedding of the virus, which increases the risk of transmission to domestic animals and subsequently humans. One approach to prevent future outbreaks is to restore forest areas to provide more habitat for bats, keeping them at a safe distance from humans. Additionally, planting more fruit trees that are appealing to bats but not to humans can help reduce the risk of contaminated food. In this way, it is essential to learn how to coexist safely with bats.

Mohsin Rasheed

Co-Founder & Chief Editor of Everyman Science. I view science not just as a collection of facts, but as the ultimate guide for human survival. From medical breakthroughs to the logistics of space exploration, I am dedicated to documenting how scientific reasoning uplifts the human spirit and provides the blueprints to save our planet. I believe that by unleashing the power of nature through disciplined inquiry, we can secure a sustainable future for humanity.

The post From Bats to Humans: Understanding the Nipah Virus in Kerala appeared first on Everyman Science.

The post From Bats to Humans: Understanding the Nipah Virus in Kerala appeared first on Everyman Science.

Factors Affecting COVID-19 Seasonality

Although you can contract these viruses at any time of the year, transmission typically increases during their respective seasons. It was expected that SARS-CoV-2 would eventually follow a similar pattern once human immune systems and the virus reached a sort of balance. However, experts have noted that the virus has not yet exhibited clear seasonality.

Kanta Subbarao, the director of the World Health Organization’s Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, expressed the lack of a clear seasonal pattern for SARS-CoV-2. Michael Osterholm, the director of the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy at the University of Minnesota, agreed, stating that the virus does not currently have a definable pattern but could develop one in the future.

Variants and their Impact on Transmission Patterns

Maria Van Kerkhove, the World Health Organization’s technical lead for COVID-19, believes that there are hints of a transmission pattern known as “periodicity” or waves of infection occurring every five to six months in different populations. However, this pattern is not consistent on a national or hemispheric level. The absence of seasonality in COVID-19 has practical implications. Knowing when to expect disease surges is crucial for health care planning and the timing of booster shots. The efficacy of vaccines against COVID-19 diminishes over time, so administering booster shots at the appropriate moments is essential.

Van Kerkhove suggests that waning immunity in the population contributes to periodic increases in transmission. Protection against severe disease remains relatively strong, but protection against basic infection is short-lived, as seen with other human coronaviruses. Reinfection can occur within a year, or even as soon as six months, after a previous infection.

While some experts, like infectious diseases epidemiologist Michael Mina, believe that SARS-CoV-2 has been displaying seasonal behavior to some extent, others, such as Ben Cowling, an infectious diseases epidemiologist at the University of Hong Kong, think that it is still in the process of developing a seasonal pattern.

The Role of Environmental Factors in Virus Transmission

The emergence of new variants such as Beta, Delta, and Omicron has been linked to the patterns of COVID-19 infections in the spring, summer, and late autumn of 2021. These patterns are not influenced by environmental conditions. Instead, they are believed to be influenced by the “force of infection,” which allows the virus to spread even during times when it normally wouldn’t be able to. This force also affects the transmission of other pathogens like the flu and RSV.

The reasons behind the seasonality of viruses are still not completely understood, but it is thought to be a combination of factors including human activities such as schools and holiday travel, as well as environmental factors like temperature and humidity. In colder winters, the lack of humidity in the air weakens mucus membranes, making it easier for viruses to survive outside of a human host. Furthermore, people in temperate climates tend to gather indoors during the winter, which can lead to suboptimal air quality and increased transmission. In tropical climates, where transmission occurs year-round, there are no defined flu seasons like those seen in temperate zones. Climate variables, especially temperature and humidity, play a significant role in the survival and transmission of pathogens.

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In November, domestic birds in Britain were put into an indoor lockdown due to the high number of infected wild birds. Avian flu has a near 100% fatality rate in most poultry. This leads to shortages of turkey and eggs as farm after farm was decimated by the disease. Since then, there have been outbreaks across the world. Over 3,000 sea lions died in Peru, 700 Caspian seals died in Russia and several dolphins have died in Britain and the US.

Preparation and Challenges in Mitigating the Risk of H5N1 Avian influenza

Although mammal-to-mammal transmission hasn’t been confirmed yet. The recent research has shown that H5N1 samples could spread efficiently between ferrets with fatal outcomes. In order for it to spread efficiently to humans, three major categories of genetic changes are required. One of which has already occurred. This means that H5N1 is still a theoretical risk for the next human pandemic at present. Preparation must already be happening to ensure minimal harm if an outbreak occurs.

The cornerstone of infectious disease preparedness involves surveillance, testing, vaccines and antivirals. The US government is already taking steps towards this goal. They have produced a candidate vaccine virus likely to provide good protection against H5N1 viruses. They also shared it with vaccine manufacturers to start stockpiling doses. However, egg shortages could be an issue due to many chickens being killed off by bird flu. In addition, getting doses of antiviral treatments to all parts of the world is also a challenge due to shortages.

Preparation must also involve appropriate PPE for healthcare workers and diagnostics for hospitals. If an outbreak does occur it can be identified quickly and treated effectively. But this requires collaboration across countries, scientific ingenuity and good leadership – something that’s difficult when public mistrust in political leadership is so high. It’s time for governments around the world to pay attention to bird flu before it’s too late.

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